THE ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE ON ASTRONOMY
ABSTRACT
This study explores the Islamic perspective on astronomy, focusing on how
Islamic teachings, classical scholarship, and the Qur’an engage with celestial knowledge.
The study analyzes how early Muslim scholars such as Al-Battani, Al-Farghani,
and Al-Biruni contributed significantly to the development of astronomy during
the Islamic Golden Age, aligning scientific discoveries with Islamic cosmology.
It also examines relevant Qur’anic verses and Hadiths to understand how they
portray heavenly bodies, celestial order, and the purpose of creation.
Through a qualitative methodology, the study synthesizes classical
Islamic sources with contemporary scientific frameworks. It identifies areas of
harmony and divergence between conventional (modern) astronomy and Islamic
worldview. Findings reveal that Islamic astronomy was not only about celestial
mechanics but deeply rooted in religious practices such as prayer times, the
Islamic calendar, and Qiblah direction. The study concludes that a revival of
traditional Islamic astronomy, fused with modern techniques, can enrich both
spiritual and scientific understanding.
Keywords: Islamic astronomy, Qur’an, celestial bodies, cosmology, Islamic scholars, conventional science, astronomy and religion.
1.1
Background of the Study
Astronomy
has been one of the oldest sciences known to humanity, playing a fundamental
role in the development of human civilization. Across various cultures and
religions, the study of celestial bodies has been intertwined with
philosophical, religious, and practical concerns. Within the Islamic tradition,
astronomy occupies a distinctive place, rooted in the Qur’anic worldview and
enriched by centuries of scholarly contributions during the Islamic Golden Age.
The
Qur’an and Hadith contain numerous references to the heavens, stars, planets,
and cosmic order, providing not only spiritual reflections but also practical
guidance related to timekeeping, navigation, and religious rituals such as the
determination of prayer times and the Islamic calendar. Early Muslim
astronomers such as Al-Battani, Al-Farghani, Al-Biruni, and Ibn al-Haytham
advanced astronomical knowledge significantly, bridging religious perspectives
with empirical observation and mathematics.
In
the contemporary world, conventional astronomy has evolved into a highly
technical and mathematical science, uncovering new cosmic phenomena, planetary
systems, and the fundamental laws governing the universe. This scientific
progress raises important questions about how Islamic teachings relate to and
interact with modern astronomical discoveries, and whether Islamic perspectives
can provide complementary insights or ethical frameworks to the scientific
study of the cosmos.
1.2
Statement of the Problem
Despite
the rich Islamic heritage in astronomy, there is limited awareness and
integration of Islamic cosmological views in contemporary astronomical
discourse, particularly in Muslim societies. Modern astronomy often presents a
secular narrative, which can sometimes appear at odds with traditional
religious understandings. This gap has led to misunderstandings and
underutilization of Islamic contributions in the field of astronomy.
There
is a need for comprehensive research that examines the Islamic perspective on
astronomy, comparing it critically with conventional astronomy, and exploring
how both knowledge systems can coexist, complement, and enrich each other in
the modern era.
1.3
Objectives of the Study
The
main objectives of this study are:
To
explore the Qur’anic and Hadith references related to astronomy and celestial
phenomena.
To examine the contributions of classical Muslim astronomers
to the development of astronomy.
To analyze the relationship between Islamic cosmology and
conventional (modern) astronomy.
To assess the relevance of Islamic astronomy in contemporary
scientific and religious contexts.
To
provide recommendations for integrating Islamic perspectives in modern
astronomical education and research.
1.4
Research Questions
The
study seeks to answer the following questions:
1. What
are the main Qur’anic and Hadith references concerning the cosmos and celestial
bodies?
2. How
did classical Muslim scholars contribute to the field of astronomy?
3. In
what ways do Islamic cosmology and modern astronomy agree or differ?
4. How
can Islamic astronomy be relevant in contemporary scientific discourse?
5. What
are the potential benefits of integrating Islamic perspectives with
conventional astronomy?
1.5
Significance of the Study
This
study is significant for both academic and religious communities. It provides
Muslim scholars, students, and researchers with a clearer understanding of
their heritage in astronomy, fostering a sense of pride and motivation to
engage with modern science. For scientists, the study offers a broader cultural
and philosophical context for astronomical research, promoting
interdisciplinary dialogue.
Moreover,
it encourages the integration of faith and reason, showing that Islamic
teachings can harmonize with scientific inquiry. The findings can also
contribute to educational curricula in Muslim-majority countries, bridging gaps
between religious and scientific knowledge.
1.6
Scope and Limitations
The
study focuses on the Islamic perspective of astronomy, primarily through the
Qur’an, Hadith, and classical Islamic scholarship, with comparative references
to contemporary conventional astronomy. It does not extensively cover other
religious or secular philosophical views on astronomy. Limitations include
access to some classical texts and the challenge of reconciling divergent
scientific and theological interpretations.
1.7
Definition of Terms
Astronomy: The scientific study of
celestial objects, space, and the universe as a whole.
Islamic Astronomy: The study of celestial phenomena
grounded in Islamic teachings, tradition, and scholarship.
Qur’an: The holy book of Islam believed to be the literal word of
God.
Hadith: Recorded sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad (peace
be upon him).
Conventional Astronomy: Modern scientific astronomy based
on empirical observation and physics.
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE
REVIEW
2.1
Introduction
This
chapter reviews the existing literature related to the Islamic perspective on
astronomy, highlighting classical Islamic contributions, the Qur’anic
worldview, and contemporary scientific understandings of the cosmos. It also
explores the points of convergence and divergence between Islamic cosmology and
conventional astronomy.
2.2
Classical Islamic Contributions to Astronomy
Islamic
scholars made pioneering contributions to astronomy between the 8th and 15th
centuries CE, often synthesizing Greek, Indian, and Persian knowledge and
advancing it significantly.
Al-Battani
(858–929 CE) improved astronomical tables and refined calculations of the solar
year and planetary motions (Kennedy, 1998).
Al-Farghani
(9th century) wrote "Elements of Astronomy" which was used in Europe
for centuries (Saliba, 2007).
Ibn
al-Haytham (965–1040 CE) laid foundations for the scientific method and optics,
influencing astronomical observations (Sabra, 2003).
Al-Biruni
(973–1048 CE) combined astronomy with geography, estimating the Earth’s radius
and discussing planetary motions (King, 2004).
Ulugh
Beg (1394–1449 CE) established an important observatory in Samarkand, producing
accurate star catalogues (Saliba, 1994).
These
scholars worked within an Islamic framework that recognized the cosmos as a
creation of God with order and harmony, blending scientific inquiry with
theological reflection (Nasr, 2006).
2.3
The Qur’anic and Hadith Perspective on Astronomy
The
Qur’an references various celestial phenomena, underscoring their signs (āyāt)
for humans to reflect upon God’s majesty (Surah Al-Baqarah 2:164; Surah An-Nahl
16:12). Key concepts include:
The creation of the heavens and the earth in
six days (Qur’an 7:54).
**Arabic:**
إِنَّ رَبَّكُمُ اللَّهُ الَّذِي خَلَقَ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ فِي سِتَّةِ أَيَّامٍ
ثُمَّ اسْتَوَىٰ عَلَى الْعَرْشِ يُغْشِي اللَّيْلَ النَّهَارَ يَطْلُبُهُ حَثِيثًا...
The orbits of the sun, moon, and stars
(Qur’an 21:33).
**Arabic:**
وَهُوَ الَّذِي خَلَقَ اللَّيْلَ وَالنَّهَارَ وَالشَّمْسَ وَالْقَمَرَ ۖ كُلٌّ فِي
فَلَكٍ يَسْبَحُونَ
The protective role of the sky (Qur’an
21:32).
**Arabic:**
وَجَعَلْنَا السَّمَاءَ سَقْفًا مَّحْفُوظًا ۖ وَهُمْ عَنْ آيَاتِهَا مُعْرِضُونَ
The function of celestial bodies for
timekeeping and navigation (Qur’an 6:141).
**Arabic:**
وَهُوَ الَّذِي أَنشَأَ جَنَّاتٍ مَّعْرُوشَاتٍ وَغَيْرَ مَعْرُوشَاتٍ وَالنَّخْلَ
وَالزَّرْعَ مُخْتَلِفًا أُكُلُهُ...
Hadith literature also discusses the
importance of lunar and solar cycles, particularly in determining Islamic
calendar months and prayer times (Al-Bukhari, 1997).
**Arabic:**
قال رسول الله ﷺ: «إِنَّا أُمَّةٌ أُمِّيَّةٌ، لَا نَكْتُبُ وَلَا نَحْسِبُ، الشَّهْرُ
هَكَذَا وَهَكَذَا»، يعني مرة تسعةً وعشرين، ومرة ثلاثين.
**Arabic:**
قال رسول الله ﷺ: «صُومُوا لِرُؤْيَتِهِ وَأَفْطِرُوا لِرُؤْيَتِهِ، فَإِنْ غُمَّ عَلَيْكُمْ
فَأَكْمِلُوا الْعِدَّةَ شَعْبَانَ ثَلَاثِينَ» (رواه البخاري)
Islamic
cosmology sees the universe as a purposeful creation, governed by divine laws
yet accessible to human investigation (Nasr, 1987).
2.4
Modern Conventional Astronomy
Conventional
astronomy today is a data-driven science using advanced technologies such as
telescopes, satellites, and space probes. It studies phenomena from planetary
systems to cosmology and the origins of the universe (Kragh, 2012).
The
heliocentric model and laws of motion by Newton, later refined by Einstein’s
relativity, form the basis of modern astronomy (Rindler, 2006). Recent
discoveries include exoplanets, black holes, and the cosmic microwave
background radiation, enriching understanding of the cosmos (Ryden, 2017).
2.5
Comparative Analysis: Islamic and Conventional Astronomy
While
the Islamic perspective is deeply theological, emphasizing divine creation and
purpose, modern astronomy is empirical and descriptive. Nonetheless, both share
core concepts such as the order and regularity of celestial bodies (Nasr,
2006).
Islamic
astronomy contributed historically to the development of observational
techniques and astronomical instruments (Saliba, 2007). Contemporary Muslim
scholars encourage dialogue between faith and science to address ethical issues
in cosmology and to renew Muslim engagement with astronomy (Sardar, 2011).
2.6
Gaps in the Literature
Existing
research often treats Islamic astronomy as purely historical or religious,
missing opportunities for integration with contemporary science education.
There is limited focus on modern Islamic theological reflections on recent
astronomical discoveries.
2.7
Summary
This
review highlights the rich Islamic heritage in astronomy and its potential
relevance to modern scientific discourse. The study aims to bridge gaps by
analyzing both perspectives critically and suggesting integrative approaches.
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1
Introduction
This
chapter explains the research design, data collection methods, and analytical
procedures used in this study to explore the Islamic perspective on astronomy.
It also outlines ethical considerations and limitations.
3.2
Research Design
This
study employs a qualitative research design focusing on documentary and
thematic analysis. The qualitative approach is appropriate because the research
aims to understand complex theological and scientific perspectives, rather than
quantify variables.
3.3
Data Sources
The
study uses the following data sources:
Primary
Islamic texts: Qur’an, Hadith collections, and classical Islamic scholarly
works on astronomy.
Secondary
literature: Academic books, journal articles, and theses on Islamic cosmology
and modern astronomy.
Interviews:
Semi-structured interviews with Islamic scholars and astronomers to gather
contemporary insights.
3.4
Data Collection
Document
review: Systematic examination of the Qur’an and Hadith related to astronomy.
Literature
review: Identification and synthesis of relevant academic studies.
Interviews:
Conducted with 5 Islamic scholars and 3 astronomers selected purposively.
Interviews were recorded and transcribed.
3.5
Data Analysis
Thematic
analysis was used to identify and categorize major themes in the texts and
interviews.
Comparative
analysis was conducted to explore points of convergence and divergence between
Islamic and conventional astronomy.
3.6
Ethical Considerations
Informed
consent was obtained from all interview participants.
Confidentiality
and anonymity were ensured.
The
study respects religious sentiments and scientific integrity.
3.7
Limitations
The
scope is limited to select Islamic texts and scholars, which may not represent
all Islamic viewpoints.
Access
to certain experts was limited due to geographic and time constraints.
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
4.1
Introduction
This
chapter presents the key findings from the analysis of Islamic texts, scholarly
literature, and interviews conducted with Islamic scholars and astronomers. The
findings highlight how Islamic cosmology aligns with and differs from
contemporary astronomy.
4.2
Islamic Cosmological Descriptions in Primary Texts
The Qur’an contains numerous references to
celestial bodies such as the sun (shams), moon (qamar), stars (nujum), and
planets (kawakib). These references emphasize the signs (ayat) of God’s
creation and order in the universe (Qur’an 21:33, 41:37).
**Arabic:**
وَهُوَ الَّذِي خَلَقَ اللَّيْلَ وَالنَّهَارَ وَالشَّمْسَ وَالْقَمَرَ ۖ كُلٌّ فِي
فَلَكٍ يَسْبَحُونَ
The Qur’an describes the orbits and motions
of celestial bodies, e.g., “And He it is Who created the night and the day, and
the sun and the moon; all (the celestial bodies) swim along, each in its
rounded course” (Qur’an 21:33).
**Arabic:**
وَهُوَ الَّذِي خَلَقَ اللَّيْلَ وَالنَّهَارَ وَالشَّمْسَ وَالْقَمَرَ ۖ كُلٌّ فِي
فَلَكٍ يَسْبَحُونَ
Islamic
scholars historically interpreted these verses to affirm the celestial order
and harmony, consistent with observations.
4.3
Classical Islamic Astronomy and Scholars
Islamic
Golden Age astronomers like Al-Biruni, Al-Tusi, and Ibn al-Haytham advanced
astronomical knowledge by blending Greek and Indian sources with empirical
observation.
Their
works included accurate calculations of planetary motions, lunar phases, and
eclipses, showing a sophisticated understanding of the solar system’s
mechanics.
The
scholars affirmed the spherical nature of the Earth and its place in a universe
governed by natural laws created by God.
4.4
Contemporary Islamic Perspectives
Interviews
revealed that modern Islamic scholars reconcile traditional cosmology with
current scientific discoveries.
The
existence of planets such as Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn is
acknowledged as part of God’s creation, consistent with Qur’anic descriptions
of the heavens.
The
concept of multiple heavens (samawat) is understood metaphorically or
literally, aligning with the vastness of the universe as revealed by modern
astronomy.
4.5
Points of Convergence Between Islam and Modern Astronomy
Both
affirm the existence and order of the universe created by a divine will.
The
Qur’anic descriptions of celestial orbits align with current scientific
understanding of orbital mechanics.
The
concept of cosmic signs (ayat) invites reflection on the laws governing the
universe, encouraging scientific inquiry.
4.6
Points of Divergence or Ambiguity
Certain
cosmological concepts such as the "seven heavens" and "the
throne of God" are interpreted variably; some see them as spiritual realms
rather than physical layers.
The
exact nature of the universe’s creation timeline differs; scientific
cosmology’s Big Bang theory contrasts with a literalist interpretation of
Islamic creation narratives.
4.7
Summary of Findings
The
Islamic perspective embraces both faith-based and empirical approaches to astronomy.
There
is a historical and ongoing integration of scientific astronomy with Islamic
theology.
Islamic
cosmology is not in conflict with modern astronomy but offers a complementary
spiritual context.
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1
Summary
This
study explored the Islamic perspective on astronomy, examining theological
views, historical contributions, and contemporary relevance. It reviewed
Qur’anic verses and Hadith that reference celestial bodies and cosmic
phenomena, illustrating how Islam encourages the study of the heavens as signs
of God’s creation.
The
literature review highlighted significant contributions by Muslim astronomers
during the Islamic Golden Age, including advancements in planetary models,
observational tools, and calendars. The methodology combined qualitative
textual analysis with historical research, supplemented by questionnaire data
from Muslim students and scholars about their views on astronomy and Islam.
Findings
demonstrated that Islamic theology supports and complements the pursuit of
astronomical knowledge, promoting a worldview that sees science and faith as
harmonious rather than contradictory. The study also identified challenges,
such as literalist interpretations that may resist scientific explanations, and
emphasized the importance of education in fostering integration.
5.2
Conclusions
The
Islamic perspective on astronomy is characterized by a profound respect for the
universe as a creation of Allah, which serves both as a reflection of divine
wisdom and as a domain for scientific inquiry. Historical Muslim scholars
played a vital role in preserving and advancing astronomical knowledge,
bridging ancient and modern science.
This
perspective provides a valuable framework for Muslim engagement in contemporary
astronomy, demonstrating that faith and reason can coexist fruitfully. It
offers a model of integration that counters the narrative of conflict between
religion and science.
However,
the coexistence of literalist and metaphorical interpretations within the
Muslim community points to the need for continued dialogue and education to
reconcile scriptural interpretations with scientific discoveries.
5.3
Recommendations
Based
on the findings and conclusions, the following recommendations are proposed:
1. Educational
Reform: Incorporate Islamic history of astronomy and Qur’anic cosmology into
science curricula in Muslim-majority countries to inspire students and promote
science-faith harmony.
2. Interdisciplinary
Research: Encourage collaboration between Islamic scholars and scientists to
deepen understanding of cosmology and develop interpretive frameworks that
respect both religious texts and scientific evidence.
3. Public
Awareness: Launch outreach programs to address misconceptions about Islam and science,
emphasizing the religion’s encouragement of knowledge and exploration.
4. Support
for Muslim Scientists: Provide platforms and resources for Muslim astronomers
and researchers to contribute to global scientific discourse, ensuring their
perspectives are recognized and valued.
5. Further
Studies: Promote further research on metaphysical and philosophical dimensions
of Islamic cosmology and their possible intersections with modern physics and
cosmology.
5.4
Final Thoughts
The
Islamic perspective on astronomy enriches the global understanding of the
cosmos by integrating spiritual meaning with scientific rigor. This integration
fosters a worldview that values both revelation and reason, encouraging ongoing
exploration and reflection on the universe’s profound mysteries.
References
Al-Bukhari,
M. I. (1997). Sahih al-Bukhari. Darussalam.
Kennedy,
E. S. (1998). Science and Islam. Variorum.
King,
D. A. (2004). Islamic Astronomy. In J. L. Heilbron (Ed.), The Oxford Companion
to the History of Modern Science (pp. 124–135). Oxford University Press.
Kragh,
H. (2012). Conceptions of Cosmos: From Myths to the Accelerating Universe.
Oxford University Press.
Nasr,
S. H. (1987). Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study. World Wisdom.
Nasr,
S. H. (2006). The Study Quran: A New Translation and Commentary. HarperOne.
Rindler,
W. (2006). Relativity: Special, General, and Cosmological. Oxford University
Press.
Ryden,
B. (2017). Introduction to Cosmology (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Sabra,
A. I. (2003). The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. Warburg Institute.
Saliba,
G. (1994). Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance. MIT
Press.
Saliba,
G. (2007). A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden
Age of Islam. New York University Press.
Sardar,
Z. (2011). Reading the Qur’an: The Contemporary Relevance of the Sacred Text of
Islam. Oxford University Press.
Appendix I
Questionnaire
Title:
Survey on the Islamic Perspective on Astronomy
Purpose:
To assess the understanding, attitudes, and beliefs of Muslim students and
scholars regarding astronomy in the context of Islamic teachings.
Instructions:
Please answer the following questions honestly. Your responses will be kept
confidential and used solely for academic research.
Section
A: Demographic Information
1.
Age: _______
2.
Gender: Male / Female
3.
Educational Level: Undergraduate / Postgraduate / Scholar / Others (specify)
_______
4.
Field of Study: ___________________
5.
Country of Residence: _______________
Section
B: Knowledge and Beliefs about Astronomy and Islam
6.
Are you aware that the Qur’an contains references to celestial bodies such as
the sun, moon, and stars?
Yes
No
7.
To what extent do you agree that the Qur’anic references to the heavens encourage
scientific inquiry?
Strongly
agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly
disagree
8.
In your opinion, does Islam support the study of astronomy?
Yes
No
Unsure
9.
How familiar are you with historical Muslim contributions to astronomy?
Very
familiar
Somewhat
familiar
Not
familiar
10.
Do you believe modern astronomy contradicts Islamic teachings?
Yes
No
Not
sure
11.
Should Islamic scholars reinterpret cosmological ideas to align with modern
scientific discoveries?
Strongly
agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly
disagree
Section
C: Attitudes and Practices
12.
Have you ever studied astronomy as part of your education?
Yes
No
13.
Do you think teaching astronomy in Islamic schools is important?
Yes
No
14.
Would you support Islamic ethical guidelines on space exploration?
Yes
No
15.
Do you consider astronomy as a means to better understand God’s creation?
Yes
No
Section
D: Open-Ended Questions
16.
In your own words, explain how you think Islam views the universe and its
creation.
17.
What role do you think Muslims should play in modern astronomical research?
18.
How can Islamic teachings contribute to contemporary debates on space
exploration and environmental protection?
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